Deep-Sea Mining in the Pacific: The Security Questions Island Governments Face

Where things stand in October 2026

Deep-sea mining means recovering mineral deposits such as polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides and cobalt-rich crusts from the deep ocean floor. Who decides depends on where the minerals lie. Inside a country's exclusive economic zone (EEZ), the coastal state regulates. Beyond national jurisdiction, in what the law of the sea calls “the Area,” the International Seabed Authority regulates on behalf of all states. ISA was set up under the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the 1994 implementing agreement. It describes the Area and its resources as the common heritage of humankind, covering around 54 per cent of the world's oceans, and had 172 members as of Feb. 6, 2026 (International Seabed Authority).

ISA has issued 15-year exploration contracts to 22 contractors for nodules, sulphides and crusts (ISA exploration contracts). It has not yet adopted rules for commercial exploitation. In July 2026 the ISA Council reiterated that commercial exploitation “should not be carried out in the absence of rules, regulations and procedures relating to exploitation.” It asked the secretariat to share a road map toward adopting those rules by Oct. 31, 2026, with written comments due by Dec. 31, 2026 (ISA Council decision ISBA/31/C/38). Negotiations resume in March 2027 (ISA, July 2026).

Three tracks now move at the same time, and island governments have to watch all three:

• International waters under ISA: the Mining Code negotiations, and the Pacific states that sponsor exploration contractors (ISA polymetallic nodule contracts).
• U.S. national processes: NOAA's review of a commercial recovery application in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (NOAA, Aug. 19, 2026) and the Interior Department's first offshore minerals lease sale, off American Samoa (BOEM, Oct. 19, 2026).
• National waters: exploration inside Pacific EEZs, led by the Cook Islands (Cook Islands Seabed Minerals Authority).

Pacific states are already inside the system

Several Pacific Island countries are directly involved through ISA. Its list of polymetallic nodule contractors includes Nauru Ocean Resources Inc. (Nauru), Tonga Offshore Mining Limited (Tonga), Marawa Research and Exploration Ltd. (Kiribati) and Cook Islands Investment Corporation (Cook Islands) (ISA polymetallic nodule contracts). Positions across the Forum differ. The Pacific Ocean Commissioner, Dr Manoni, has described deep-sea mining as an issue where countries hold “different and, in some cases, opposing positions.” Pacific leaders and ministers held the region's first Deep-Sea Mining Talanoa in Suva in early 2025 (PINA, Aug. 31, 2026).

The Forum has not tried to force one position. At the 55th Leaders Meeting in Koror, Palau (Aug. 31 to Sept. 3, 2026), leaders endorsed an Implementation Plan for a Member-Led Regional Approach to Deep Sea Minerals and a paper on a Regional Repository for Deep Sea Mineral Data and Knowledge. They said cooperation should respect each member's sovereign rights over resources in its own waters, ensure equitable access to science, data and knowledge, and adhere to UNCLOS (55th Forum Leaders communiqué). For background on how the Forum works, see ISPI's Pacific Islands Forum explainer and our analysis of the 55th Forum Leaders Meeting in Palau.

The U.S. track: NOAA and the American Samoa lease sale

NOAA says that expanding deep-sea mineral exploration is a key part of national security and economic policy under the April 2025 executive order “Unleashing America's Offshore Minerals and Resources.” On Aug. 19, 2026 it found that a consolidated application from The Metals Company USA (TMC USA) fully met the information requirements of the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act. The application, submitted Feb. 6, 2026, seeks both an exploration licence and a commercial recovery permit in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, between Hawaiʻi and Mexico. Public comments closed Oct. 19, 2026. NOAA must still decide whether to certify the application. If it does, an environmental impact statement with more public comment would follow (NOAA, Aug. 19, 2026).

Closer to home for a U.S. territory, the Marine Minerals Administration in the Interior Department will hold Lease Sale PACM-1 on Nov. 19, 2026. It offers two areas on the outer continental shelf off American Samoa, of about 16.3 million and 15.2 million acres, for minerals in polymetallic nodules and ferromanganese crusts (Federal Register, Oct. 20, 2026). The agency says a winning bid “only authorizes preliminary activities like mapping.” A multi-stage regulatory process would follow before any exploration, testing or commercial harvesting (BOEM, Oct. 19, 2026).

American Samoa's own waters are under a moratorium. Executive Order 006-2024 bars mining, extraction and related exploration of seabed minerals in the territory's waters (American Samoa EO 006-2024). In September 2026, Governor Pulaaliʻi Nikolao Pula told BOEM that American Samoa does not support commercial deep-sea mineral extraction at this time. He accepted that the lease areas lie in federal waters and that the decision rests with the federal government, and he asked for fisheries protections, monitoring and transparency, protection of Rose Atoll, and an equitable revenue share (Samoa News / ASG release, Sept. 17, 2026). ISPI's PB-03: Public Safety Policy for U.S. Pacific Territories examines the wider pattern in which federal frameworks are set in Washington and the territories absorb the effects.

The national-waters track: the Cook Islands

The Cook Islands issued three five-year exploration licences for polymetallic nodules in February 2022, the first formal exploration rights in its waters (SBMA FAQs). Its Seabed Minerals Authority (SBMA) says the country is still in an exploration-only phase and has extended exploration for five years from February 2027. It also says no commercial extraction can happen without separate and extensive approvals (Cook Islands Seabed Minerals Authority). SBMA told Cook Islands News that no further exploration licences have been issued, and that a licence gives no company ownership of the country's seabed minerals or any automatic right to harvest. The same report cites a Lowy Institute analysis describing the Cook Islands' nodules as a focal point of US-China competition over critical minerals (RNZ / Cook Islands News, Oct. 6, 2026).

Five security questions island governments face

The points below are ISPI's analysis. They are framed as questions because the answers depend on decisions that have not been made yet.

1. Who has jurisdiction, and who is consulted?

One stretch of ocean can involve an EEZ, a U.S. federal outer continental shelf next to a territory, and the ISA-administered Area. Island governments need to know which regime applies to each block and what consultation rights they hold. At ISA's July 2026 Council session, most delegations favoured requiring contractors to “consult” potentially affected coastal states throughout an exploitation contract, while the scope and timing of those consultations were still under discussion (ISA Council President’s statement, Sept. 11, 2026). The Forum's 2026 language on sovereign rights points the same way (55th Forum Leaders communiqué).

2. Can anyone actually watch what happens at sea?

Rules only matter if they can be monitored. The Cook Islands relies on inspectors aboard exploration vessels, vessel tracking and reporting requirements (SBMA FAQs). Most small island administrations already struggle to patrol their EEZs for fishing, as ISPI's analysis of the Pacific fisheries surveillance gap shows. Mining operations far offshore would add another monitoring task on top of that.

3. How does great-power competition change the risk?

U.S. agencies now frame seabed minerals as a national-security and supply-chain issue (NOAA, Aug. 19, 2026; BOEM, Oct. 19, 2026), and analysts quoted in the Cook Islands coverage describe a US-China contest over nodules (RNZ / Cook Islands News, Oct. 6, 2026). For small states, that can bring investment and attention. It can also bring pressure, divided loyalties inside the region and new strains on governance capacity. ISPI's CM-14 and WP-01 look at how outside security interests play out in island communities.

4. What happens to fisheries and food security?

Forum leaders call fisheries critically important to the prosperity, food security, livelihoods and economies of the Blue Pacific (55th Forum Leaders communiqué). American Samoa's governor named fisheries first among the territory's concerns (Samoa News / ASG release, Sept. 17, 2026). Any regime needs clear baseline data before activity starts and transparent monitoring afterward. That is why the Forum's planned regional data repository matters (55th Forum Leaders communiqué).

5. Can the region stay united while members disagree?

The Forum has chosen dialogue and shared data over a single regional position (PINA, Aug. 31, 2026; 55th Forum Leaders communiqué). That protects regional unity for now, but it leaves each government to build its own legal, environmental and negotiating capacity. That is a heavy load for small administrations, as ISPI's small island developing states (SIDS) explainer and SAMOA Pathway explainer describe. Infrastructure on the seafloor, such as the cables in ISPI's undersea cables explainer, adds another interest that seabed activity must not damage.

What to watch next

• Oct. 31, 2026: ISA road map toward exploitation rules due. Written comments close Dec. 31 (ISA Council decision ISBA/31/C/38).
• Nov. 19, 2026: BOEM Lease Sale PACM-1 off American Samoa (Federal Register, Oct. 20, 2026).
• NOAA certification decision on the TMC USA application, then an environmental impact statement if it is certified (NOAA, Aug. 19, 2026).
• February 2027: Cook Islands exploration licence term renewal (Cook Islands Seabed Minerals Authority).
• March 2027: ISA Council negotiations on the Mining Code resume (ISA, July 2026).

Frequently asked questions

Is deep-sea mining happening in the Pacific now?

No commercial mining has been authorised. ISA has exploration contracts only (ISA exploration contracts), the Cook Islands is in an exploration-only phase (Cook Islands Seabed Minerals Authority), and the U.S. applications and lease sale are still at early regulatory stages (NOAA, Aug. 19, 2026; BOEM, Oct. 19, 2026).

Who regulates deep-sea mining?

Coastal states regulate inside their own national waters. The International Seabed Authority regulates the seabed beyond national jurisdiction under UNCLOS (International Seabed Authority). The United States also runs its own processes: the Interior Department leases minerals on the U.S. outer continental shelf (Federal Register, Oct. 20, 2026), and NOAA reviews applications under the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act, including the TMC USA application for the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (NOAA, Aug. 19, 2026).

What is the Pacific Islands Forum position on deep-sea mining?

There is no single position. In 2026 Forum leaders endorsed a member-led regional approach and a regional data repository, and they stressed sovereign rights, equitable access to science and adherence to UNCLOS (55th Forum Leaders communiqué).

Does a U.S. lease off American Samoa allow mining?

Not by itself. BOEM says a lease only authorises preliminary activities like mapping, with further regulatory steps before exploration or harvesting (BOEM, Oct. 19, 2026). American Samoa's governor says the territory does not support commercial extraction at this time (Samoa News / ASG release, Sept. 17, 2026).

ISPI publishes its research free under CC BY 4.0. If your government, agency or organization needs a briefing on seabed minerals governance, maritime monitoring or regional positions, you can commission research from ISPI. ISPI is a nonprofit organization; its application for 501(c)(3) tax-exempt status is pending. Contributions are not tax-deductible until IRS recognition is granted.

Sources

1. International Seabed Authority, “About ISA”
2. ISA, “Exploration Contracts”
3. ISA, “Polymetallic Nodules” exploration contracts
4. ISA Council, decision ISBA/31/C/38, July 24, 2026
5. ISA Council, Statement of the President on part II of the 31st session, ISBA/31/C/19/Rev.1/Add.1, Sept. 11, 2026
6. ISA, “From the 31st to the 32nd Session: advancing the Mining Code”
7. Pacific Islands Forum, 55th Leaders Meeting Communiqué, Koror, Palau, Aug. 31–Sept. 3, 2026
8. PINA, “Pacific Leaders keep Deep-Sea Mining dialogue open despite differences: Dr Manoni,” Aug. 31, 2026
9. NOAA, “NOAA advances review of first-ever deep seabed mining commercial recovery application,” Aug. 19, 2026
10. Federal Register, “American Samoa Outer Continental Shelf Pacific Mineral Lease Sale 1,” Oct. 20, 2026
11. BOEM, “MMA Announces Final Leasing Notice for first-ever Offshore Mineral Lease Sale,” Oct. 19, 2026
12. American Samoa Government, Executive Order 006-2024 (moratorium on deep seabed mining)
13. Samoa News (ASG press release), “Governor submits formal comments on proposed federal offshore mineral lease sale,” Sept. 17, 2026
14. Cook Islands Seabed Minerals Authority, “Cook Islands taps ADB as ‘honest broker’ to refine deep-sea mineral framework”
15. Cook Islands Seabed Minerals Authority, FAQs
16. RNZ / Cook Islands News, “Cook Islands Seabed Authority maintains exploration of deep-sea minerals continues,” Oct. 6, 2026
17. ISPI papers: PB-03, CM-14, WP-01